The Frontiers of Imperial Rome - David J Breeze

Title: The Frontiers of Imperial Rome

Author: David J Breeze

ISBN: 978-1-84884-427-8

Publisher: Pen and Sword Publishers

Pages: 242

Hardcover

Photos/Maps/Illustrations: 28/17/32 

How a civilization controlled its borders speaks much to the level of sophistication, the confidence and the perceived nature of the threat from those external to itself. It is a reflection of the view of grand strategy and the method by which the central government emphasizes its approach to security and trade. Relatively speaking, there has been very little attention paid to this facet of the Roman Empire; David Breeze’s work has gone a long way to address this shortfall.  

The topic looks, at first blush, to be fairly dry and academic; however, Breeze’s approach is anything but. Recognizing at the outset the challenges facing the modern historian regarding the lack of comprehensive written records relating to any formal Imperial ‘frontier policy’; Breeze has incorporated into his analysis archeological records and studies thereby enabling the drawing of conclusions reinforced with non-traditional sources. 

He has divided his book into three distinct groups: Sources, The Frontiers and Interpretation. This is very helpful as it leads the reader along the line of reasoning that the author follows. Logical and linear, Breeze builds his position with focus and attention; thus we understand not just the ‘what’ of the Romans approach, but also the ‘why’ they did what they did from both a micro (local) and macro (Empire wide) perspective. He compliments his narrative with numerous sketches of regional Roman border posts and maps showing actual and extrapolated border control points.  

Under the ‘Sources’ section, Breeze looks at what was available from the historical studies of frontiers and the conclusions drawn. Of specific interest is the changing nature of the perception of the purpose of the frontiers that the Romans held at various times throughout the existence of the Empire. That the Romans recognized that there were frontiers is consistent; however, what these represented is what Breeze suggests changed over time. Additionally, he discusses the means Rome used of enforcing her will upon neighbours, namely through treaties and regulations outlining the rules of access and control. Why this is important is that it displays Rome’s use of diplomatic and legal means to enforce regional structure upon her adversaries and allies. Underlining and augmenting these means was the presence of the Roman army and navy. The distribution and employment of these assets and how they influenced the enforcement of regulations is also discussed in detail.   

Breeze contends that the Romans designed their border presence to control access to Roman territory vice prevent large scale invasion. In this regard, he suggests that the Roman view was not that far removed from modern border monitoring. Thus it was that many of the border posts were situated upon trade routes and key entry points along Imperial frontiers. In his section on the Frontiers, he reviews the physical nature of the geographic borders and how they influenced the development of Roman structures along said lines. Replete with maps and artists renditions of control points, this section studies in depth the unique nature and influence of desert, riverine, mountain, sea and linear barriers and terrains.

Finally, the Interpretation section investigates the effectiveness and utility of Rome’s frontier control policies. In studying the construction of the physical barriers, forts and ‘fortlets’ he notes that while they were effective in the control of people and movement, often times they took significant amount of time to complete reflecting perhaps the perception of need and threat at a given period of Rome’s history. He also undertakes a review of the degree of decentralization that Rome accepted over the completion of frontier structures reflecting recognition that while strategic policy may be exercised by the Emperor, it was left to the individual regional Governors to ensure the security of their regions. This section of Breeze’s work further evaluates the success of the frontiers in assisting in the effective continuation of the Empire and the different schools of thought relating to this.

 

I found the author’s writing style to be lucid and engaging. His conclusions are based upon well documented and researched hypothesis. Like any historical analysis there are going to be those who disagree with some of his findings; however, he has noted and, in many cases, incorporated the different schools of thought into his narrative, thereby providing balance and depth. The book itself is a fascinating study of the interaction between strategic/operational policy, diplomacy and military doctrine in the enforcement of frontier control. Well worth reading.

Germanicus: The Magnificent Life and Mysterious Death of Rome's Most Popular General - Lindsay Powell

Title: Germanicus: The Magnificent Life
and Mysterious Death of  
Rome's Most Popular General
Author: Lindsay Powell

ISBN: 978-1-78159-120-8
Publisher: Pen and Sword Publishing
Pages: 338
Hardcover
Photos/Maps: 44/13

Ancient history is, by its very nature, fickle. Names of great men and women which were on everyone's lips during their lifetimes are forgotten with the passage of time. Ask today about the great men of the Roman Empire and many will say Julius Caesar; press further and they may come up with Augustus or Hadrian, rarely however will people be able to name beyond that. Ask them about the Great Generals of antiquity and they may say Sun Tzu, Atilla the Hun or Pompey followed by silence. That is the curse of many who were masters of their craft in times of old; lack or a loss of records and they are relegated to the dustbin of the past, utterly lost to all but a few. Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus, one of the finest Generals and politicians of his day, feted and adored throughout the known world, is one of those men. 

Mr Powell has crafted an excellent biography of the man and his world. I was particularly impressed by the amount of primary source material that he was able to draw upon in the research for his book. No less than 45 unique sources from antiquity were cited or reviewed. It is of course, an occupational limitation when researching ancient figures that there will be a limited amount of sources and an inability to corroborate will become a factor. It then falls to the historian to draw reasonable and balanced conclusions as best he can based upon the information that he has access to. Powell has done this, and clearly acknowledged it when he has, in what I consider to be a fair presentation and interpretation of the facts.

The author opens his work with a series of family tree's and a chronology of the period running from 17 BCE to 20 CE covering the birth and death of Germanicus. These are very beneficial as they set the stage for the reader regarding the family that Germanicus was born into and the environment within which he lived. The period in question covering the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius are thought of generally as a time of the Roman Empire ascendant; and yet there were numerous instances that threatened the stability and very existence of the Empire itself: the mutiny of the Rhine Legions, the destruction of Varus's Legions in Germany and the vicious and ongoing conflict in Illricum. Set against this were the political turmoil of Imperial transition, the heightened sensitivities of Tiberius especially against the popularity and success of Germanicus and the consistent challenge of maintaining positive relations with adjoining states and peoples.

It was throughout this hotbed of history that Germanicus rose to prominence as both a subtle and skilled politician as well as a ruthless and brilliant military commander. Powell breaks his narrative into a series of distinct yet consecutive chapters that trace Germanicus' life and death chronologically. Again this is very helpful for the reader as it sets the subject within the context of the greater world around him in an easily accessible manner. He closes out his storyline with a discussion of how and why Germanicus' family fell within a few years of his death from the pinnacle of Roman society and influence to ignominious disgrace and ruin.

I particularly like Powell's narrative style. It is extremely readable and engaging, providing an educational narrative on a fascinating period of history. The addition of numerous maps and drawings are also very helpful in providing context to the story. The management of an empire as vast and complicated as the Roman would have been a challenge to any modern day leader; remove the benefits of technological advancements and it becomes all the more astounding that Rome was able to thrive and grow at all and is a clear indication of the strength of the Roman administrative system. Powell explains the complexities of this system as he traces the political advancement and education of Germanicus culminating in his being appointed with 'imperium proconsulare' by Tiberius (in effect overseer of the East); responsible directly and second only to the Emperor himself. Throughout, Powell does an admirable job of analyzing the ancient source commentary on these events.

There are many lessons for the modern day commander to be gleaned from the life of Germanicus. His recognition of legitimate grievance amongst the Rhine Legions while punishing those who transgressed the line of discipline may be compared with a similar success by Petain in the First World War with mutinying French soldiers. His knowledge of when to use coercion and when to use diplomacy not only cemented his reputation amongst his soldiers as a commander who did not squander lives but also with his potential opponents who recognized in him both a worthy adversary and a honourable man. His lack of hubris and willingness to focus on whatever task was directed by the Emperor ensured the continued confidence of that Office. 

Germanicus was a soldier and statesman of outstanding ability who set service to Rome above all else. Powell has done an exemplary job at shedding light upon the character and accomplishments of this noteworthy Roman. The book itself is of a very high quality with only a few typesetting issues to mar the presentation. I strongly recommend this work.

 

 

Legions of Rome - Stephen Dando-Collins

 Title: Legions of Rome

Author: Stephen Dando-Collins
ISBN: 978-1-84916-230-2
Hardcover
Pages: 608
Illustrations: 24 colour/numerous B/W, 13 maps
Publisher: Quercus Publishing

The Roman Empire lasted for one thousand years as a Republic and a Dictatorship. During that time the Army of Rome enforced both the will and law of Rome to the four corners of the Empire. The Legions were the hammer of the Senate and Emperor and they had a huge influence not only on external enemies but also on the government and leadership of the Empire. Over the course of the Empire’s existence, the Legions changed in terms of structure, equipment, training and numbers. Author Dando-Collins has put together a comprehensive guide and overview to the Legions: the men, their structure and the battles that shaped their development and the Empire.

Commencing with a look at the men who made up the Legions, he undertakes a substantive explanation of all aspects of the individual soldiers training, command structure, discipline, diet, musicians, weapons, equipment and recognition system. The degree of administrative sophistication that the army achieved was notable and was as much a source of its success as was its operational and tactical development. A Legionary could move between multiple Legions throughout his career and, regardless of where the Legion was raised or employed, would be able to instantly be familiar with the routine. The author has broken down the organization by subject and provides very manageable explanations relating to each of the subsets. This makes for a very clear understanding of the Roman administration system. Thus, for example, we are provided a with a detailed account of the recognition program of the Legions including what (in order of precedence) would be awarded, the criteria that needed to be met, the oversight and methodology by which awards were vetted and the benefits that were granted along with the award.

Following this, a section devoted to the structure and operational doctrine of the Legions themselves was presented. The method of numerical designation, organization, command and control, battle doctrine, origin of Legionary Emblems, march and camp discipline. What I particularly enjoyed about this section was the detailed history of each individual Legion outlining its creation, regions of employment, significant positive and negative events in the history of the Legion and notable commanders. The reader begins to truly appreciate the complexity and longevity of the Roman army and its subcomponents. Additionally, Dando-Collins outlines the method by which the Roman machine was controlled from the center through “The Palatium”. One does not often hear about this administrative structure which was the interface between the Senate and Emperor and the employment of the Legions themselves. Another area that the author expands upon is the way in which the Romans maintained a strategic reserve of trained soldiers through the Evocati system which represented a pool of retired legionaries which could be recalled to duty in times of emergency.

The author rounds out his study of the Legions with a comprehensive summary of significant engagements involving the army commencing in 29 BC and running through to the fall of Rome in 410 AD. Closing out this study is an evaluation/discussion of the cause of the decline in the lethality of the Legions as fighting units and, with this decline, the gradual diminishment of the Empire itself. What is extremely interesting throughout this period is the degree to which the Roman Legions were willing to fight each other as readily as external enemies of the Empire. Not only does this speak to the command relationships within the Army and Empire, but it also draws attention to the self-imposed drain on manpower due to injury and death from these engagements. Conversely, it also sheds light on the depth and resiliency of the Legion system; very few Empires could afford the bleeding that Roman soldiers and generals imposed upon themselves.

This book is of outstanding quality and is excellent as an introduction for those trying to understand the Legions and their role within the Empire. Dando-Collins provides a comprehensive bibliography for additional investigation that the reader may wish to undertake. I recommend this book for both its relevance as an overview and its readability.      

               

 

The Crisis of Rome - Dr. Gareth C. Sampson

Title: The Crisis of Rome

Author: Dr. Gareth C. Sampson
Publisher: Pen and Sword, 2010
ISBN: 978-1-844-15972-7
Pages: 259
Photographs/maps: 16 b/w//22       

Rome, during the period of the first century BC, was anything but secure. Despite success and an empire that ran from Italy to Spain, large and capable enemies were active and threatening both the northern and southern borders of the Roman Empire. The author traces the impact of the actions of the adversaries on Roman foreign policy and the role that one man in particular, Marius, had upon not only leading Rome out of the multiple military crisis but also how his position and influence enabled him to force through fundamental changes in the structure, training and recruitment of the Roman Army and, by extension, Roman society and politics.

It may be argued that the ten years from 110 BC to 100 BC are amongst the most critical in the history of the Roman Empire. Although not as well known as the period of Julius Caesar and the Triumverates, the period in question represents a time when Rome could very well have been eliminated as a world power before it was able to fully establish itself. The southern enemy, under Numidian King Jugurtha, threatened Rome’s gains against Carthage and its position in Africa. In the north, migrating Gaulish tribes led by the Cimbri, had inflicted three crushing defeats upon Roman armies and were settling in the Po Valley of northern Italy; leaving them in a position to threaten the City of Rome itself. Marius, given unprecedented powers through multiple terms as Consul (a total of six within a ten year period), not only crushed both of these adversaries through a series of brilliant campaigns, but created the conditions for the ascendance of the Roman army and the establishment of one of the greatest empires in history.

Dr Sampson, drawing upon a series of primary source documents such as Plutarch, Cicero, Livy and literally dozens of others, traces the means and methods used by Marius to achieve his aims, the political environment within which he operated and the history of Rome, the Numidians and the Cimbri. He also studies how they came to clash. Recognizing that his information is limited (especially when dealing with cultures that practiced oral as opposed to written history), that a number of his sources were drafted well after the fact and that corroboration of conclusions and facts are in many cases impossible, Dr Sampson performs an admirable job of cross referencing and drawing logical conclusions from the information that he has.

His style of writing is engaging and he is able to provide the reader with a solid commentary that paints a clear picture of the events as they unfold. I was disappointed with the tactical maps provided and felt that they did not provide any added value to the narrative. Dr Sampson also provides a detailed evaluation of the changes brought about by Marius on the Roman army and the impact that this had on Roman society writ large (specifically the removal of the requirement for land ownership as a precursor to army service). Rounding out this notable work is an excellent bibliography and appendices that focus on evaluating Roman manpower resources during the period in question, brief synopses of the various ancient scholars and their works that he draws upon, the impact of Marius’ success upon the internal political situation in Rome itself and other significant international situations that concurrently influenced issues within Rome. Dr Sampson has written an eminently readable and engaging work on this fascinating period.

The War of the Three Gods - Peter Crawford

Title: The War of the Three Gods 

Author: Peter Crawford

ISBN: 978-1-84884-618-0

Hardcover

Pages: 256

Publisher: Pen and Sword

Photos: 25 // 44 maps

 

Peter Crawford has produced an outstanding work looking at a subject that has not been investigated in a great deal of depth, namely the impact of the ongoing conflict between the empires of Eastern Rome and Persia. Specifically, how the fighting weakened both to the point where the forces of Islam were able to take full advantage of the power vacuum and rise to dominance. Tracing the intricacies of Eastern warfare and politics from the sixth century to the mid-seventh century, Crawford traces the decline of the traditional powers and the rise of a religiously based successor. Drawing upon a plethora of primary and secondary source material he has crafted an eminently readable and enjoyable book. 
 
The information presented was written by Chris Buckham; however, it was published in Soldier Magazine. Therefore, the material is reproduced here by the author with the permission of the magazine. If you would like to republish this information or refer to excerpts please contact the Assistant Editor Soldier Magazine (rclark@soldiermagazine.co.uk). Website for the Magazine is: http://www.army.mod.uk/soldier-magazine/soldier-magazine.aspx